The history of science and technology in India begins with prehistoric human focking activity at Mehrgarh, in present-day Pakistan, and continues through the Indus Valley Civilization to early states and empires. The British colonial rule introduced western education in India. The British system of education, in its efforts to give rise to a native class of civil servants, exposed a number of Indians to foreign institutes of higher learning. Following independence science and technology in the Republic of India has included automobile engineering, information technology, communications as well as space, polar, and nuclear sciences.
Prehistory
4500 BC in sites such as Koldihwa in the Indo-Gangetic Plains. By 5500 BCE a number of sites similar to Mehrgarh had appeared, forming the basis of later chalcolithic cultures. The inhabitants of these sites maintained trading relations with Near East and Central Asia.
Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewers. Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar dated to 3000 BCE, and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE. Cotton was cultivated in the region by the 5th millennium BCE—4th millennium BCE. Sugarcane was originally from tropical South and Southeast Asia. Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.
By 2800 BCE private bathrooms, located on the ground floor, were found in many houses of the Indus civilization. Pottery pipes in walls allowed drainage of water and there was, in some case, provision of a crib for sitting in toilets. 'Western-style' toilets were also made from bricks and used wooden toilet seats on top. The waste was then transmitted to drainage systems. Large scale sanitary sewer systems were in place by 2700 BCE. The drains were 7–10 feet wide and 2 feet below ground level. The sewage was then led into cesspools, built at the intersection of two drains, which had stairs leading to them for periodic cleaning. Plumbing using earthenware plumbing pipes with broad flanges for easy joining with asphalt to stop leaks was in place by 2700 BCE.
The inhabitants of the Indus valley developed a system of standardization, using weights and measures, evident by the excavations made at the Indus valley sites. This technical standardization enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction. Calibration was also found in measuring devices along with multiple subdivisions in case of some devices. The world's first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt. Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering. This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.
Excavations at Balakot (c. 2500-1900 BC), present day Pakistan, have yielded evidence of an early furnace. The furnace was most likely used for the manufacturing of ceramic objects. Ovens, dating back to the civilization's mature phase (c. 2500-1900 BC), were also excavated at Balakot. The Kalibangan archeological site further yields evidence of potshaped hearths, which at one site have been found both on ground and underground. Kilns with fire and kiln chambers have also been found at the Kalibangan site.
Based on archaeological and textual evidence, Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2008)—a University of Minnesota professor emeritus of geography—traces the origins of Indian cartography to the Indus Valley Civilization (ca. 2500–1900 BCE). The use of large scale constructional plans, cosmological drawings, and cartographic material was known in India with some regularity since the Vedic period (1 millennium BCE). Climatic conditions were responsible for the destruction of most of the evidence, however, a number of excavated surveying instruments and measuring rods have yielded convincing evidence of early cartographic activity. Schwartzberg (2008)—on the subject of surviving maps—further holds that: 'Though not numerous, a number of map-like graffiti appear among the thousands of Stone Age Indian cave paintings; and at least one complex Mesolithic diagram is believed to be a representation of the cosmos.'
Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization. The earliest available swords of copper discovered from the Harappan sites date back to 2300 BCE. Swords have been recovered in archaeological findings throughout the Ganges–Jamuna Doab region of India, consisting of bronze but more commonly copper.
Early kingdoms
The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use of large numbers. By the time of the last Veda, the Yajurvedasaṃhitā (1200-900 BCE), numbers as high as 10 12 were being included in the texts. For example, the mantra (sacrificial formula) at the end of the annahoma ("food-oblation rite") performed during the aśvamedha ("horse sacrifice"), and uttered just before-, during-, and just after sunrise, invokes powers of ten from a hundred to a trillion. The Satapatha Brahmana (9th century BCE) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras.
Baudhayana (c. 8th century BCE) composed the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra , which contains examples of simple Pythagorean triples, such as: (3,4,5) , (5,12,13) , (8,15,17) , (7,24,25) , and (12,35,37) as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square: "The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square." It also contains the general statement of the Pythagorean theorem (for the sides of a rectangle): "The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together." Baudhayana gives a formula for the square root of two.
The earliest Indian astronomical text—named Vedānga Jyotiṣa —dates back to around 1200 BC, and details several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events. The Vedānga Jyotiṣa also details astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules for empirical observation. Since the texts written by 1200 BCE were largely religious compositions the Vedānga Jyotiṣa has connections with Indian astrology and details several important aspects of the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of Adhimāsa . Ritus and Yugas are also described. Tripathi (2008) holds that ' Twenty-seven constellations, eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac were also known at that time.'
The Egyptian Papyrus of Kahun (1900 BCE) and literature of the Vedic period in India offer early records of veterinary medicine. Kearns & Nash (2008) state that mention of leprosy is described in the medical treatise Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE). However, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the Hindu religious book Atharva-veda , written by 1500–1200 BCE. Cataract surgery was known to the physician Sushruta (6th century BCE). Traditional cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka , a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged. Though this method was successful, Susruta cautioned that it should only be used when necessary. Greek philosophers and scientists traveled to India where these surgeries were performed by physicians. The removal of cataract by surgery was also introduced into China from India. Brahmanic hospitals were established in what is now Sri Lanka as early as 431 BCE. Ashoka (reign: 273 BCE to 232 BCE) also established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire (322–185 BCE) by 230 BCE.
During the 5th century BCE, the scholar Pāṇini had made several discoveries in the fields of phonetics, phonology, and morphology. Meta
UNE - School of Science and Technology - About us
School of Science and Technology Armidale, New South Wales, AUSTRALIA ... Bachelor's and Master's degrees in Computer Science and Information Technology as well as ...
New York State Foundation for Science, Technology and ...
NYSTAR works to further high-technology academic research and economic development in New York State.
New York State Science & Technology Law Center
New York State Foundation for Science, Technology, and Innovation
Welcome To New Explorations Into Science, Technology ...
New Explorations into Science, Technology and Math High School. Dr. Olga Livanis, PRINCIPAL. 111 COLUMBIA STREET, MANHATTAN, NY 10002 Phone: 212-677-5190
Science news and science jobs from New Scientist - New ...
Weekly science and technology news magazine, considered by some to be the world's best, with diverse subject matter. Articles from current issue and collections of past articles on ...
Category:Science and technology in New Zealand ...
Subcategories. This category has the following 14 subcategories, out of 14 total.
NEW YORK STATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY LAW CENTER - New ...
Beginning in August 2004, the New York State Foundation for Science, Technology and Innovation (“NYSTAR”) (formerly the New York State Office of Science, Technology and ...
Commission on Science & Technology
Commission on Science and Technology, technology economic development, New Jersey, technology business economic development, State Business Incentives, Business Grants, State ...
New York Science & Technology Lawyers, Attorney, Lawyer ...
Find New York Science & Technology Lawyers, Attorney, Lawyer, Attorneys, Law firms - NY - Science & Technology lawyers in New York New York
Popular Science | New Technology, Science News, The ...
Your ultimate online portal to the future. Reporting on what's new and what's next in technology, science, gadgets, space, green tech and more.