Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies personality and individual differences. Its areas of focus include:
- Constructing a coherent picture of a person and his or her major psychological processes
- Investigating individual differences , that is, how people can differ from one another.
- Investigating human nature, that is, how all people's behaviour is similar.
One emphasis in this area is to construct a coherent picture of a person and his or her major psychological processes . Another emphasis views personality as the study of individual differences, in other words, how people differ from each other. A third area of emphasis examines human nature and how all people are similar to one another. These three viewpoints merge together in the study of personality.
Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations . The word "personality" originates from the Latin persona , which means mask. Significantly, in the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask was not used as a plot device to disguise the identity of a character, but rather was a convention employed to represent or typify that character.
The pioneering American psychologist, Gordon Allport (1937) described two major ways to study personality, the nomothetic and the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self-actualization, or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual.
The study of personality has a rich and varied history in psychology, with an abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories include dispositional (trait) perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist and social learning perspective. There is no consensus on the definition of "personality" in psychology. Most researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain perspective and often take an eclectic approach. Some research is empirically driven such as the "Big 5" personality model whereas other research emphasizes theory development such as psychodynamics. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing.
Philosophical assumptions
Many of the ideas developed by historical and modern personality theorists stem from the basic philosophical assumptions they hold. The study of personality is not a purely empirical discipline, as it brings in elements of art, science, and philosophy to draw general conclusions. The following five categories are some of the most fundamental philosophical assumptions on which theorists disagree:
1. Freedom versus Determinism
See also: Free willThis is the debate over whether we have control over our own behavior and understand the motives behind it (Freedom), or if our behavior is causally determined by forces beyond our control (Determinism). Determinism has been considered unconscious, environmental, or biological by various theories.
2. Heredity versus Environment
Main article: Nature versus nurturePersonality is thought to be determined largely by either genetics and heredity, by environment and experiences, or by some combination of the two. There is evidence for all possibilities. Contemporary research suggests that most personality traits are based on the joint influence of genetics and environment.
3. Uniqueness versus Universality
The argument over whether we are all unique individuals (Uniqueness) or if humans are basically similar in their nature (Universality). Gordon Allport, Abraham Maslow, and Carl Rogers were all advocates of the uniqueness of individuals. Behaviorists and cognitive theorists, in contrast, emphasized the importance of universal principles such as reinforcement and self-efficacy.
4. Active versus Reactive
Do we primarily act through our own initiative (Active), or react to outside stimuli (Reactive)? Behavioral theorists typically believe that humans are passively shaped by their environments, whereas humanistic and cognitive theorists believe that humans are more active.
5. Optimistic versus Pessimistic
Personality theories differ on whether people can change their personalities (Optimism), or if they are doomed to remain the same throughout their lives (Pessimism). Theories that place a great deal of emphasis on learning are often, but not always, more optimistic than theories that do not emphasize learning.
Personality theories
Critics of personality theory claim personality is "plastic" across time, places, moods, and situations. Changes in personality may indeed result from diet (or lack thereof), medical effects, significant events, or learning. However, most personality theories emphasize stability over fluctuation.
Trait theories
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association, personality traits are "enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts." Theorists generally assume a) traits are relatively stable over time, b) traits differ among individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing while others are reserved), and c) traits influence behavior.
The most common models of traits incorporate three to five broad dimensions or factors. The least controversial dimension, observed as far back as the ancient Greeks, is simply extraversion and introversion (outgoing and physical-stimulation-oriented vs. quiet and physical-stimulation-averse).
- Gordon Allport delineated different kinds of traits, which he also called dispositions. Central traits are basic to an individual's personality, while secondary traits are more peripheral. Common traits are those recognized within a culture and thus may vary from culture to culture. Cardinal traits are those by which an individual may be strongly recognized.
- Raymond Cattell's research propagated a two-tiered personality structure with sixteen "primary factors" (16 Personality Factors) and five "secondary factors."
- Hans Eysenck believed just three traits—extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism—were sufficient to describe human personality. Differences between Cattell and Eysenck emerged due to preferences for different forms of factor analysis, with Cattell using oblique, Eysenck orthogonal, rotation to analyse the factors that emerged when personality questionnaires were subjected to statistical analysis. Today, the Big Five factors have the weight of a considerable amount of empirical research behind them, building on the work of Cattell and others.
- Lewis Goldberg proposed a five-dimension personality model, nicknamed the "Big Five":
- Openness to Experience : the tendency to be imaginative, independent, and interested in variety vs. practical, conforming, and interested in routine.
- Conscientiousness : the tendency to be organized, careful, and disciplined vs. disorganized, careless, and impulsive.
- Extraversion : the tendency to be sociable, fun-loving, and affectionate vs. retiring, somber, and reserved.
- Agreeableness : the tendency to be softhearted, trusting, and helpful vs. ruthless, suspicious, and uncooperative.
- Neuroticism : the tendency to be calm, secure, and self-satisfied vs. anxious, insecure, and self-pitying
- John L. Holland's RIASEC vocational model, commonly referred to as the Holland Codes , stipulates that six personality traits lead people to choose their career paths. In this circumplex model, the six types are represented as a hexagon, with adjacent types more closely related than those more distant. The model is widely used in vocational counseling.
Trait models have been criticized as being purely descriptive and offering little explanation of the underlying causes of personality. Eysenck's theory, however, does propose biological mechanisms as driving traits, and modern behavior genetics researchers have shown a clear genetic substrate to them. Another potential weakness of trait theories is that they lead people to accept oversimplified classifications, or worse offer advice, based on a superficial analysis of their personality. Finally, trait models often underestimate the effect of specific situations on people's behavior. It is important to remember that traits are statistical generalizations that do not always correspond to an individual's behavior.
Type theories
Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of people. Personality types are distinguished from personality traits, which come in different levels or degrees. For example, according to type theories, there are two types of people, introverts and extraverts. According to trait theories, introversion and extraversion are part of a continuous dimension, with many people in the middle. The idea of psychological types originated in the theoretical work of Carl Jung and William Marston, whose work is r
Free Personality Test, Career, Business Personality Test, Type, Quiz
Offers personality assessment test software such as personality type test, business personality test, career assessment test, IQ test, and career profile quiz.
Personality Test Center - Fun tests
Personality test and quiz center - free, professionally developed personality and career tests scored online.
PersonalDNA | Your True Self Revealed - Fast Fun Free Personality ...
Welcome to Personal DNA Assess your personality. We've developed a new kind of personality test which is free, fun, fast and accurate. Our test has been designed by a team of ...
ColorQuiz.com - The free five minute personality test!
ColorQuiz is a free five minute personality test based on decades of research by color psychologists around the world. There are no complicated questions to answer, you simply ...
You vs Your Dog; Personality Quiz - Fun Online Quiz
Do you dare to compete against your dog on this fun personality test? Online quiz.
Personality Quiz Site - tests and quizzes
Fun personality tests and quizzes ... Gain insight into your personality the fun way! A variety of short personality tests that attempt to analyze your ...
Fun Personality Quizzes | Personality Profile Test
Quiz: Personality Profile Test. How do others see you?
Personality - Youniverse.com
About our Personality Test ... will tell you a whole lot more about yourself: your mood, how you like to have fun ...
Free Personality Test, Personality Quiz, Personality Type, Fun ...
Free Personality Test, Free Personality Quiz, Personality Type, Fun Personality Test, Fun Personality Quiz
Free IQ Test, Career Aptitude Test, Personality, Kids IQ Test
Offers Online educational testing software products such as business personality test, career assessment test, child IQ test, Mensa IQ test, career profile, sales training and ...