Coffea ( coffee ) is a large genus (containing more than 90 species) of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. They are shrubs or small trees, native to subtropical Africa and southern Asia. Seeds of several species are the source of the popular beverage coffee. After their outer hull is removed, the seeds are commonly called "beans". Coffee beans are widely cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries on plantations, for both local consumption and export to probably every other country in the world. Coffee ranks as one of the world's most valuable and widely traded commodity crops and is an important export of a number of countries.
Botany
When grown in the tropics, coffee is a vigorous bush or small tree which usually grow to a height of 3–3.5 m (10–12 feet). Most commonly cultivated coffee species grow best at high elevations. Although they are hardy and capable of withstanding severe pruning, they are nevertheless not very tolerant of sub-freezing temperatures, and so cannot be grown in temperate climate zones. To produce a maximum yield of coffee berries/cherries (800-1400 kg per hectare), the plants need substantial amounts of water and fertilizer. Since they grow best in alkaline soils, calcium carbonate and other lime minerals are sometimes used to reduce acidity in the soil, which can occur due to run off of minerals from the soil in mountainous areas. The caffeine in coffee "beans" is a natural defense: a toxic substance which repels many creatures that would otherwise eat the seeds - as with the nicotine in tobacco leaves.
There are several species of Coffee that may be grown for the beans, but Coffea arabica is considered by many to have the best overall flavor and quality. The other species (especially Coffea canephora (var. robusta )) are usually grown on land unsuitable for Coffea arabica . The tree produces red or purple fruits (drupes), which contain two seeds (the "coffee beans", which — despite their name — are not true beans, which are the seeds of the legume family). In about 5-10% of any crop of coffee cherries, the cherry will contain only a single bean, rather than the two usually found. This is called a 'peaberry', which is smaller and rounder than a normal coffee bean. It is often removed from the yield and either sold separately, (as in New Guinea Peaberry) or discarded.
The tree of Coffea arabica will grow fruits after 3 – 5 years and will produce for about 50 – 60 years (although up to 100 years is possible). The blossom of the coffee tree is similar to jasmine in color and smell. The fruit takes about nine months to ripen. Worldwide, an estimated 15 billion coffee trees are grown on 100,000 km 2 (39,000 sq mi) of land.
Coffee is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including Dalcera abrasa , Turnip Moth and some members of the genus Endoclita , including E. damor and E. malabaricus .
There are several pests that affect coffee production, including the coffee borer beetle ( Hypothenemus hampei ) and the coffee leafminer Leucoptera caffeina .
Shade-grown coffee
Main article: Shade grown coffeeIn its natural environment, coffee most often grows in the shade. However, most cultivated coffee is produced on full-sun, monocropping plantations, as are most commercial crops, in order to maximize production per unit of land. This practice is, however, detrimental to the natural environment since the natural habitats which existed prior to the establishment of the plantations are destroyed, and all non-Coffea flora and fauna are suppressed - often with chemical pesticides and herbicides. Shade-grown coffee is favored by conservationists, since it permits a much more natural, complex ecosystem to survive on the land occupied by the plantation. Also, it naturally mulches the soil it grows in, lives twice as long as sun-grown varieties, and depletes less of the soil's resources - hence less fertilizer is needed. In addition, shade-grown coffee is considered by some to be of higher quality than sun-grown varieties, as the cherries produced by the Coffea plants in the shade are not as large as commercial varieties; some believe that this smaller cherry concentrates the flavors of the cherry into the seed (bean) itself. Shade-grown coffee is also associated with environmentally friendly ecosystems that provide a wider variety and number of migratory birds than those of sun-grown coffee farms.
Chemistry of green coffee beans
The term “green coffee bean” refers to un-roasted mature or immature coffee beans. These have been processed by wet or dry method for removing the outer pulp and mucilage, and have an intact wax layer on the outer surface. When immature, they are green. When mature, they have a brown to yellow or reddish color, and typically weigh 300 to 330 mg per dried coffee bean. Non-volatile and volatile compounds in green coffee beans, such as caffeine, deter many insects and animals from eating them. Further, both non-volatile and volatile compounds contribute to the flavor of the coffee bean when it is roasted. Non-volatile nitrogenous compounds (including alkaloids, trigonelline, proteins and free amino acids) and carbohydrates are of major importance in producing the full aroma of roasted coffee, and for its biological action.
Non-volatile alkaloids
Caffeine ( 1,3,7-trimethyl-xanthine ) is the alkaloid most present in green and roasted coffee beans. The content of caffeine is between 1% and 2.5% w/w of dry green coffee beans. The content of caffeine does not change during maturation of green coffee beans. Lower concentrations of theophylline, theobromine, paraxanthine, liberine, and methylliberine can be found. The concentration of theophylline, an alkaloid noted for its presence in green tea, is reduced during the roasting process (usually about 15 minutes at 230 degrees Celsius), whereas the concentration of most other alkaloids are not changed. The solubility of caffeine in water increases with temperature and with the addition of chlorogenic acids, citric acid, tartaric acid, all of which are present in green coffee beans (e.g. 1 g caffeine dissolves in 46 mL of water at room temperature, and 5.5 mL at 80 degrees Celsius). The xanthine alkaloids are odorless but have a bitter taste in water, which however is masked by organic acids present in green coffee.
Trigonelline ( N-methyl-nicotinate ) is a derivative of vitamin B6, not as bitter as caffeine. In green coffee beans, the content is between 0.6% (w/w) and 1% (w/w). At roasting temperature (230 degrees Celsius), 85% of the trigonelline is degraded to nicotinic acid, leaving small amounts of the unchanged molecule in the roasted beans. In green coffee beans, trigonelline is synthesized from nicotinic acid ( pyridinium-3-carboxylic acid ) by methylation from methionine, a sulfur-containing amino acid. Mutagenic activity of trigonelline has been reported.
Proteins and amino acids
Proteins account for 8% (w/w) to 12% (w/w) of dried green coffee beans. Major part of the proteins are of the of 11-S-storage kind(alpha - component of 32 kDa, beta – component of 22 kDa), most of which are degraded to free amino acids during maturation of green coffee beans. Further, 11-S-storage proteins are degraded to their individual amino acids under roasting temperature and are thus an additional source of bitter components due to generation of Maillard products. High temperature, oxygen concentration and low pH degrade 11-S-storage–proteins of green coffee beans to low molecular weight peptides and amino acids. The degradation is accelerated in the presence of organic acids such as chlorogenic acids and their derivatives. Other proteins include enzymes, such as catalase and polyphenol oxidase, which are important for the maturation of green coffee beans. Mature coffee contains free amino acids (4.0 mg amino acid / g robusta coffee and up to 4 .5 mg amino acid /g arabica coffee). In Coffea arabica, alanine is the amino acid with the highest concentration, i.e. 1.2 mg / g followed by asparagine of 0.66 mg/g, whereas in C. robusta, alanine is present at a concentration of 0.8 mg/g and asparagine at 0.36 mg/g. The free hydrophobic amino acids in fresh green coffee beans contribute to the unpleasant taste making it impossible to prepare a beverage with such compounds. In fresh green coffee from Peru, these concentrations have been determined as follows: isoleucine 81 mg /kg, leucine 100 mg/kg, valine 93 mg/kg, tyrosine 81 mg/kg, phenylalanine 133 mg /kg. The concentration of gamma-aminobutyric acid (a neurotransmitter) has been determined between 143 mg/ kg and 703 mg/kg in green coffee beans from
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