Purim (Hebrew:
פורים ( help · info ) Pûrîm "lots", related to Akkadian pūru ) is a festival that commemorates the deliverance of the Jewish people of the ancient Persian Empire from Haman's plot to annihilate them, as recorded in the Biblical Book of Esther ( Megillat Esther ). According to the story, Haman cast lots to determine the day upon which to exterminate the Jews.
Purim is celebrated annually according to the Hebrew calendar on the 14th day of the Hebrew month of Adar (Adar II in leap years), the day following the victory of the Jews over their enemies; as with all Jewish holidays, Purim begins at sundown on the previous secular day. In cities that were protected by a surrounding wall at the time of Joshua, including Shushan (Susa) and Jerusalem, Purim is celebrated on the 15th of the month, known as Shushan Purim . Purim is characterized by public recitation of the Book of Esther ( keriat ha-megilla ), giving mutual gifts of food and drink ( mishloach manot ), giving charity to the poor ( mattanot la-evyonim ), and a celebratory meal ( se'udat Purim ); other customs include drinking wine, wearing of masks and costumes, and public celebration.
Jewish exiles from the Kingdom of Judah who had been living in the Babylonian captivity (6th Century BCE) found themselves under Persian rule after Babylonia was in turn conquered by the Persian Empire. According to the Book of Esther, Haman, royal vizier to King Ahasuerus planned to kill the Jews, but his plans were foiled by Esther, his queen. Mordecai, a palace official, cousin and foster parent of Esther, subsequently replaced Haman. The Jews were delivered from being the victims of an evil decree against them and were instead allowed by the King to destroy their enemies, and the day after the battle was designated as a day of feasting and rejoicing.
History
The Persian Empire
The Achaemenid Empire (Persian: هخامنشیان ) (559 BC–330 BC) was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Greater Iran. It was the first of many successor Persian Empires to be accounted as such and to figure importantly in history—most often as a superpower. It is also the state which freed the Israelites (Jews) from their Babylonian captivity.
Encompassing approximately 7.5 million square kilometers, the Achaemenid Empire was territorially the largest empire of classical antiquity. At the height of its power, the Persian Empire spanned three continents, and eventually incorporated the following territories: In the east, modern Afghanistan and beyond into central Asia, and Pakistan. In the north and west, all of Asia Minor (modern Turkey), the upper Balkans peninsula (Thrace), and most of the Black Sea coastal regions. In the west and southwest the territories of modern Iraq, northern Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, all significant population centers of ancient Egypt and as far west as portions of Libya.
The empire began as a vassal state of the Medes but ended up conquering and enlarging the Median empire to include Ancient Egypt and Asia Minor. Under Xerxes I of Persia, it came very close to conquering Ancient Greece. The Achaemenids were finally overthrown by the conquest of Alexander the Great in 330 BC.
Literature
Purim narratives
- The primary source relating to the origin of Purim is the Megillat Esther (Book of Esther), which became the last of the 24 books of the Tanakh to be canonized by the Sages of the Great Assembly. It is dated to the 4th century BCE and according to the Talmud was a redaction by the Great Assembly of an original text by Mordecai .
- The Greek Book of Esther included in the Septuagint, is a retelling of the events of the Hebrew Book of Esther rather than a translation and records additional traditions, in particular the identification of Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes and details of various letters. It is dated to the second to first century BCE. The Coptic and Ethiopic versions of Esther are translations of it instead of the Hebrew Esther.
- A Latin version of Esther was produced by Jerome for the Vulgate. It translates the Hebrew Esther but interpolates translations of the Greek Esther where the latter provides additional material.
- Several Aramaic targums of Esther were produced in the Middle Ages of which two survive - the Targum Rishon ("First Targum") and Targum Sheni ("Second Targum") dated c. 500 - 1000 CE. These were not targums ("translations") in the true sense but like the Greek Esther are retellings of events and include additional legends relating to Purim. There is also a 16th century rescension of the Targum Rishon sometimes counted as Targum Shelishi ("Third Targum").
Classical and medieval historians
Jewish historians
- The first century CE historian Josephus recounts the origins of Purim in Book 11 of his Antiquities of the Jews . He follows the Hebrew Book of Esther but shows awareness of some of the additional material found in the Greek version in that he too identifies Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes and provides the text of the king's letter. He also provides additional information on the dating of events relative to Ezra and Nehemiah.
- An account of the origins of Purim is included in chapter 4 of the tenth century CE compilation of Jewish history, the Josippon. It too follows the account of the Hebrew Esther and includes additional traditions matching those found in the Greek version and Josephus (whom the author claims as a source) with the exception of the details of the letters found in the latter works. It also provides other contextual information relating Jewish and Persian history such as the identification of Darius the Mede as the uncle and father-in-law of Cyrus.
Persian historians
- A brief Persian account of events is provided by Islamic historian Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari in his History of the Prophets and Kings (completed 915 CE ) volume 4 The Ancient Kingdoms . Although following Jewish and Christian tradition, al-Tabari provides details not known in Jewish sources such as the original Persian form "Asturya" for "Esther" . He places events during the rule of Ardashir Bahman (i.e Artaxerxes II Mnemon ) but confuses him with Ardashir al-Tawil al-Ba' (i.e. Artaxerxes I Longimanus) while assuming "Ahasuerus" to be the name of a co-ruler .
- Another brief Persian account independent of al-Tabari as well as of Jewish and Christian sources, is recorded by the Arab historian Masudi in The Meadows of Gold (completed 947 CE ). He refers to a Jewish woman who had married the Persian king and delivered her people. He refers to the king by the name Bahman i.e "(Artaxerxes II) Mnemon" thus corroborating this identification of Ahasuerus. He mentions the woman's daughter, Khumay, who is not known in Jewish tradition but is well remembered in Persian folklore. Al-Tabari calls her Khumani and tells how her father ( Ardashir Bahman ) married her. Ferdowsi in his Shahnameh (c. 1000 CE) also tells of king Bahman marrying Khumay.
Ancillary accounts
- Josephus in his Contra Apionem quotes a work referred to as Peri Ioudaion ( On the Jews ), which he credits to Hecataeus of Abdera (late 4th century BCE). It is commonly known as "Pseudo-Hecataeus". ) It records the Persian persecution of Jews and mentions Jews being forced to worship at Persian erected shrines. Berossus (early third century BCE) in his Babyloniaca (in a section preserved in Clement of Alexandria's Protrepticus ) provides context for the account in that he records the introduction of idols of Anahita under Artaxerxes II Mnemon throughout the Persian Empire. Although the Book of Esther refrains from mentioning Jewish or Persian religion, the Tosefta ( Sanhedrin 61b) notes that Haman wore an image of an idol and that the decree that all must bow down to him related to the worship of this idol. Rashi's commentary notes a deification of Haman. Strabo, in his Geographica 11.8.4 (early first century CE) records the worship of images of Omanos and Anadatos together with Anahita. Attempts to interpret these as gods are problematic , however they are arguably references to Haman and his father Hamedatha still being worshipped in his day..
- Plutarch in his Lives (75 CE) records alternative names Oarses and Arsicas for Artaxerxes II Mnemon given by Deinon (c.360-30 BCE ) and Ctesias (Artexerxes II's physician ) respectively. These derive from the Persian name Khshayarsha as do "Ahasuerus" ("Xerxes") and the hypocoristicon "Arshu" for Artaxerxes II found on a contemporary inscription ( LBAT 162 ). These sources thus arguably identify Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes II in light of the names used in the Hebrew and Greek sources and accords with the contextual information from Pseudo-Hecataeus and Berossus as well as agreeing with Al-Tabari and Masudi's placement of events. The 13th century Syriac historian Bar-Hebraeus in his Chronography , also identifies Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes
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